Volume 18 Issue 4
Dec.  2025
Turn off MathJax
Article Contents
Article Navigation >  Water Science and Engineering  > 2025  >  18(4): 464-473
Adéla Puškáčová, Dominik Matýsek, Daniel Pliska, Iveta Růžičková, Jiří Wanner. 2025: Effects of recycled wastewater on soil enzymatic microbial activities during a long-term irrigation trial. Water Science and Engineering, 18(4): 464-473. doi: 10.1016/j.wse.2025.09.006
Citation: Adéla Puškáčová, Dominik Matýsek, Daniel Pliska, Iveta Růžičková, Jiří Wanner. 2025: Effects of recycled wastewater on soil enzymatic microbial activities during a long-term irrigation trial. Water Science and Engineering, 18(4): 464-473. doi: 10.1016/j.wse.2025.09.006
shu

Effects of recycled wastewater on soil enzymatic microbial activities during a long-term irrigation trial

doi: 10.1016/j.wse.2025.09.006

  • Department of Environmental Chemistry and Technology, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technická 5, 16000 Prague 6, Czech Republic

  • Received Date: 2024-12-13
  • Accepted Date: 2025-09-15
    • Available Online: 2025-12-03
    Abstract
  • Wastewater reuse offers a potential solution to global drought and water scarcity but may have environmental impacts, particularly on soil microbial communities and their metabolic activities. This study investigated the effect of selected irrigation water types on soil bacterial enzymatic activities. Three differently treated urban wastewaters (secondary effluent, ultraviolet (UV)-treated effluent, and ultrafiltration (UF)/UV-treated effluent) were compared with river water over a two-year irrigation period. Soil samples were regularly analysed for potential nitrification activity (PNA) and dehydrogenase activity (DHA). The results indicate that treated wastewater significantly increased DHA in surface soil (at depths of 0-25 cm), with the greatest increase observed for the UF/UV-treated effluent (up to a 59% increase relative to the initial value). In contrast, PNA decreased by up to 82% during the first year across all treatments, suggesting a shift in microbial community structure away from nitrifiers. In the second year, microbial activity stabilised across all treatments. Statistically significant correlations were identified between soil temperature, humus content, and enzymatic activity (p < 0.001). These findings imply that wastewater reuse enhances total microbial biomass and potentially alters nitrogen cycling dynamics, underscoring the need for targeted monitoring of soil microbiological health in long-term wastewater reuse scenarios.

     

    • FullText(HTML)
  • loading
    • References(64)
  • [1]
    Adrover, M., Farrus, E., Moya, G., Vadell, J., 2012. Chemical properties and biological activity in soils of Mallorca following twenty years of treated wastewater irrigation. Journal of Environmental Management 95, S188-S192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2010.08.017.
    [2]
    Angelakis, A.N., Eslamian, S.S., Dalezios, N.R., 2018. Water scarcity management: Part 1: Methodological framework. International Journal of Global Environmental Issues 17(1), 25-29. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJGENVI.2018.090629.
    [3]
    Ashok, K., Swati, S., 2019. Microbes and Enzymes in Soil Health and Bioremediation. Springer Nature Singapore, Singapore.
    [4]
    Aswal, S., Gupta, P.K., Gupta, H.S., Yadav, K.K., Jaiswal, S., Bairwa, R.K., Meena, N.L., Ram, B., Singh, D.K., 2022. Wastewater irrigation effects on soils of Bundi district in Rajasthan. The Pharma Innovation Journal 11(6S), 1332-1336.
    [5]
    Azouzi, R., Charef, A., Zaghdoudi, S., Khadhar, S., Shabou, N., Boughanmi, H., Hjiri, B., Hajjaj, S., 2016. Effect of long-term irrigation with treated wastewater of three soil types on their bulk densities, chemical properties and PAHs content in semi-arid climate. Arabian Journal of Geosciences 9(1), 3. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-015-2085-z.
    [6]
    Becerra-Castro, C., Lopes, A.R., Vaz-Moreira, I., Silva, E.F., Manaia, C.M., Nunes, O.C., 2015. Wastewater reuse in irrigation: A microbiological perspective on implications in soil fertility and human and environmental health. Environment International 75, 117-135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2014.11.001.
    [7]
    Blonska, E., Lasota, J., Gruba, P., 2016. Effect of temperate forest tree species on soil dehydrogenase and urease activities in relation to other properties of soil derived from loess and glaciofluvial sand. Ecological Research 31(5), 655-664. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11284-016-1375-6.
    [8]
    Bonetta, S., Pignata, C., Gasparro, E., Richiardi, L., Bonetta, S., Carraro, E., 2022. Impact of wastewater treatment plants on microbiological contamination for evaluating the risks of wastewater reuse. Environmental Sciences Europe 34(1), 20. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-022-00597-0.
    [9]
    Bray, R.T., Jankowska, K., Kulbat, E., Luczkiewicz, A., Sokolowska, A., 2021. Ultrafiltration process in disinfection and advanced treatment of tertiary treated wastewater. Membranes 11(3), 221. https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes11030221.
    [10]
    Chen, W., Lu, S., Pan, N., Wang, Y., Wu, L., 2015. Impact of reclaimed water irrigation on soil health in urban green areas. Chemosphere 119, 654-661. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.07.035.
    [11]
    Chevremont, A.-C., Boudenne, J.-L., Coulomb, B., Farnet, A.-M., 2013. Impact of watering with UV-LED-treated wastewater on microbial and physico-chemical parameters of soil. Water Research 47(6), 1971-1982. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2013.01.006.
    [12]
    Czech Standardization Agency (CSN), 2003. Characterisation of Waste - Leaching - Compliance Test for Leaching of Granular Waste Materials and Sludges - Part 4: One Stage Batch Test at a Liquid to Solid Ratio of 10 I/kg for Materials with Particle Size below 10 mm (without or with Size Reduction). CSN EN 12457-4 (838005). CSN, Prague.
    [13]
    Czech Standardization Agency (CSN), 2008. Water Quality - Determination of the Chemical Oxygen Demand (CODCr). CSN ISO 15507 (757521). CSN, Prague.
    [14]
    Czech Standardization Agency (CSN), 2009. Water Quality - Determination of Dissolved Inorganic Salts in Wastewater - Gravimetric Method after Filtration through Glass Fibre. CSN 75 7347 (757347). CSN, Prague.
    [15]
    Czech Standardization Agency (CSN), 2019. Soil Quality - Dehydrogenase Determination in Soil - Part 1: Method for Determining the Activity of Dehydrogenases Enzymes in Soil Using 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium Chloride (TTC). CSN EN ISO 23753-1 (836490). CSN, Prague.
    [16]
    Czech standardization agency (CSN), 2020. Water Quality - Determination of Biochemical Oxygen Demand after n Days (BODn) - Part 1: Dilution and Seeding Method with Allylthiourea Addition. CSN EN ISO 5815-1 (757520). CSN, Prague.
    [17]
    Dalezios, N.R., Angelakis, A.N., Eslamian, S.S., 2018. Water scarcity management: Part 1: Methodological framework. International Journal of Global Environmental Issues 17(1), 1-40. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJGENVI.2018.090629.
    [18]
    Dang, Q., Tan, W., Zhao, X., Li, D., Li, Y., Yang, T., Li, R., Zu, G., Xi, B., 2019. Linking the response of soil microbial community structure in soils to long-term wastewater irrigation and soil depth. Science of The Total Environment 688, 26-36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.06.138.
    [19]
    European Union (EU), 2020. Regulation (EU) 2020/741 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 May 2020 on Minimum Requirements for Water Reuse. European Union.
    [20]
    Gallego, S., Montemurro, N., Beguet, J., Rouard, N., Philippot, L., Perez, S., Martin-Laurent, F., 2021. Ecotoxicological risk assessment of wastewater irrigation on soil microorganisms: Fate and impact of wastewater-borne micropollutants in lettuce-soil system. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 223, 112595. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2021.112595.
    [21]
    Garcia-Orenes, F., Caravaca, F., Morugan-Coronado, A., Roldan, A., 2015. Prolonged irrigation with municipal wastewater promotes a persistent and active soil microbial community in a semiarid agroecosystem. Agricultural Water Management 149, 115-122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2014.10.030.
    [22]
    Gee, G.W., Or, D., 2002. 2.4 Particle-size analysis. In: Dane, J.H., Topp, G.C. (Eds.), Methods of Soil Analysis. Soil Science Society of America, Madison, pp. 255-293. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssabookser5.4.c12.
    [23]
    Guadie, A., Yesigat, A., Gatew, S., Worku, A., Liu, W., Ajibade, F.O., Wang, A., 2021. Evaluating the health risks of heavy metals from vegetables grown on soil irrigated with untreated and treated wastewater in Arba Minch, Ethiopia. Science of The Total Environment 761, 143302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143302.
    [24]
    Guo, W., Qi, X., Xiao, Y., Li, P., Andersen, M., Zhang, Y., Zhao, Z., 2018. Effects of reclaimed water irrigation on microbial diversity and composition of soil with reducing nitrogen fertilization. Water 10(4), 365. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10040365.
    [25]
    Hechmi, S., Hamdi, H., Mokni-Tlili, S., Ghorbel, M., Khelil, M.N., Zoghlami, I.R., Benzarti, S., Jellali, S., Hassen, A., Jedidi, N., 2020. Impact of urban sewage sludge on soil physico-chemical properties and phytotoxicity as influenced by soil texture and reuse conditions. Journal of Environmental Quality 49(4), 973-986. https://doi.org/10.1002/jeq2.20093.
    [26]
    Hervas-Gamez, C., Delgado-Ramos, F., 2019. Drought management planning policy: From Europe to Spain. Sustainability 11(7), 1862. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11071862.
    [27]
    Ibekwe, A.M., Gonzalez-Rubio, A., Suarez, D.L., 2018. Impact of treated wastewater for irrigation on soil microbial communities. Science of The Total Environment 622-623, 1603-1610. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.10.039.
    [28]
    International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 1985. Water Quality-Determination of Electrical Conductivity. ISO 7888:1985. ISO, Geneva.
    [29]
    International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 1993. Soil Quality-Determination of Dry Matter and Water Content on a Mass Basis-Gravimetric Method. ISO 11465:1993. ISO, Geneva.
    [30]
    International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 2004. Water Quality-Determination of Phosphorus-Ammonium Molybdate Spectrometric Method. ISO 6878:2004. ISO, Geneva.
    [31]
    International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 2012. Soil Quality-Determination of Potential Nitrification and Inhibition of Nitrification- Rapid Test by Ammonium Oxidation. ISO 15685:2012. ISO, Geneva.
    [32]
    International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 2021. Soil, Treated Biowaste and Sludge-Determination of pH. ISO 10390:2021. ISO, Geneva.
    [33]
    Ionita, M., Nagavciuc, V., 2021. Changes in drought features at the European level over the last 120 years. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 21(5), 1685-1701. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-21-1685-2021.
    [34]
    Jogan, H., Dasog, G.S., 2019. Effect of wastewaters on soil enzymes activity. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences 8(4), 1080-1087. https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2019.804.125.
    [35]
    Kampouris, I.D., Agrawal, S., Orschler, L., Cacace, D., Kunze, S., Berendonk, T.U., Klumper, U., 2021. Antibiotic resistance gene load and irrigation intensity determine the impact of wastewater irrigation on antimicrobial resistance in the soil microbiome. Water Research 193, 116818. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2021.116818.
    [36]
    Karimi, H., Nikaeen, M., Hatamzadeh, M., Dastjerdi, M.V., Farhadkhani, M., 2021. The effect of wastewater irrigation on the activity of soil microorganisms. Journal of Environmental Health and Sustainable Development 6(3), 1399-1406. https://doi.org/10.18502/jehsd.v6i3.7247.
    [37]
    Kayikcioglu, H.H., 2012. Short-term effects of irrigation with treated domestic wastewater on microbiological activity of a Vertic xerofluvent soil under Mediterranean conditions. Journal of Environmental Management 102, 108-114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2011.12.034.
    [38]
    Kayikcioglu, H.H., 2018. Can treated wastewater be used as an alternative water resource for agricultural irrigation? Changes in soil and plant health after three years of maize cultivation in Western Anatolia, Turkey. Applied Ecology and Environmental Research 16(6), 8131-8161. https://doi.org/10.15666/aeer/1606_81318161.
    [39]
    Kibuye, F.A., Gall, H.E., Elkin, K.R., Ayers, B., Veith, T.L., Miller, M., Jacob, S., Hayden, K.R., Watson, J.E., Elliott, H.A., 2019. Fate of pharmaceuticals in a spray-irrigation system: From wastewater to groundwater. Science of The Total Environment 654, 197-208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.10.442.
    [40]
    Kim, R.-Y., Yoon, J.-K., Kim, T.-S., Yang, J.E., Owens, G., Kim, K.-R., 2015. Bioavailability of heavy metals in soils: Definitions and practical implementation-A critical review. Environmental Geochemistry and Health 37(6), 1041-1061. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-015-9695-y.
    [41]
    Leonel, L.P., Tonetti, A.L., 2021. Wastewater reuse for crop irrigation: Crop yield, soil and human health implications based on giardiasis epidemiology. Science of The Total Environment 775, 145833. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145833.
    [42]
    Li, Y., Sallach, J.B., Zhang, W., Boyd, S.A., Li, H., 2019. Insight into the distribution of pharmaceuticals in soil-water-plant systems. Water Research 152, 38-46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2018.12.039.
    [43]
    Li, Z., Zeng, Z., Tian, D., Wang, J., Fu, Z., Zhang, F., Zhang, R., Chen, W., Luo, Y., Niu, S., 2020. Global patterns and controlling factors of soil nitrification rate. Global Change Biology 26(7), 4147-4157. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.15119.
    [44]
    Liu, B., Li, Y., Zhang, X., Wang, J., Gao, M., 2015. Effects of chlortetracycline on soil microbial communities: Comparisons of enzyme activities to the functional diversity via Biolog EcoPlatesTM. European Journal of Soil Biology 68, 69-76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejsobi.2015.01.002.
    [45]
    Ma, S.-C., Zhang, H.-B., Ma, S.-T., Wang, R., Wang, G.-X., Shao, Y., Li, C.-X., 2015. Effects of mine wastewater irrigation on activities of soil enzymes and physiological properties, heavy metal uptake and grain yield in winter wheat. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 113, 483-490. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2014.12.031.
    [46]
    Ma, X.Y., Dong, K., Tang, L., Wang, Y., Wang, X.C., Ngo, H.H., Chen, R., Wang, N., 2020. Investigation and assessment of micropollutants and associated biological effects in wastewater treatment processes. Journal of Environmental Sciences 94, 119-127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2020.03.054.
    [47]
    Masson-Delmotte, V., Zhai, P., Portner, H.-O., Roberts, D., Skea, J., Shukla, P.R., Pirani, A., Moufouma-Okia, W., Pean, C., Pidcock, R., et al., 2019. Global Warming of 1.5°C. IPCC, Geneva.
    [48]
    Masto, R.E., Chhonkar, P.K., Singh, D., Patra, A.K., 2009. Changes in soil quality indicators under long-term sewage irrigation in a sub-tropical environment. Environmental Geology 56(6), 1237-1243. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-008-1223-2.
    [49]
    Moreira da Silva, M., Resende, F.C., Freitas, B., Anibal, J., Martins, A., Duarte, A., 2022. Urban wastewater reuse for citrus irrigation in Algarve, Portugal-Environmental benefits and carbon fluxes. Sustainability 14(17), 10715. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141710715.
    [50]
    Mukhametov, A., Kondrashev, S., Zvyagin, G., Spitsov, D., 2022. Treated livestock wastewater influence on soil quality and possibilities of crop irrigation. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences 29(4), 2766-2771. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2021.12.057.
    [51]
    Naumann, G., Cammalleri, C., Mentaschi, L., Feyen, L., 2021. Increased economic drought impacts in Europe with anthropogenic warming. Nature Climate Change 11(6), 485-491. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-021-01044-3.
    [52]
    Pansu, M., Gautheyrou, J., 2006. Mineralogical, organic and inorganic methods. In: Handbook of Soil Analysis. Springer, Berlin. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-31211-6_31.
    [53]
    Pescod, M.B., 1992. Wastewater Treatment and Use in Agriculture, FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 47. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.
    [54]
    Rodell, M., Famiglietti, J.S., Wiese, D.N., Reager, J.T., Beaudoing, H.K., Landerer, F.W., Lo, M.-H., 2018. Emerging trends in global freshwater availability. Nature 557(7707), 651-659. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-018-0123-1.
    [55]
    Rodriguez-Gonzalez, L., Nunez-Delgado, A., Alvarez-Rodriguez, E., Garcia-Campos, E., Martin, A., Diaz-Ravina, M., Arias-Estevez, M., Fernandez-Calvino, D., Santas-Miguel, V., 2022. Effects of ciprofloxacin, trimethoprim, and amoxicillin on microbial structure and growth as emerging pollutants reaching crop soils. Environmental Research 214, 113916. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2022.113916.
    [56]
    Tang, Y., Yu, G., Zhang, X., Wang, Q., Tian, D., Tian, J., Niu, S., Ge, J., 2019. Environmental variables better explain changes in potential nitrification and denitrification activities than microbial properties in fertilized forest soils. Science of The Total Environment 647, 653-662. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.07.437.
    [57]
    Truu, M., Truu, J., Heinsoo, K., 2009. Changes in soil microbial community under willow coppice: The effect of irrigation with secondary-treated municipal wastewater. Ecological Engineering 35(6), 1011-1020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2008.08.010.
    [58]
    Tunc, T., Sahin, U., 2015. The changes in the physical and hydraulic properties of a loamy soil under irrigation with simpler-reclaimed wastewaters. Agricultural Water Management 158, 213-224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2015.05.012.
    [59]
    Ungureanu, N., Vladuț, V., Voicu, G., 2020. Water scarcity and wastewater reuse in crop irrigation. Sustainability 12(21), 9055. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12219055.
    [60]
    Wafula, D., White, J.R., Canion, A., Jagoe, C., Pathak, A., Chauhan, A., 2015. Impacts of long-term irrigation of domestic treated wastewater on soil biogeochemistry and bacterial community structure. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 81(20), 7143-7158. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.02188-15.
    [61]
    Wang, C., Li, W., Yang, Z., Chen, Y., Shao, W., Ji, J., 2015. An invisible soil acidification: Critical role of soil carbonate and its impact on heavy metal bioavailability. Scientific Reports 5(1), 12735. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep12735.
    [62]
    Wanner, J., Rosicky, J., Kovarik, J., Srb, M., Lansky, M., Sykora, P., 2021. Commissioning of the new water line of the Central wastewater treatment plant in Prague and its impact on the operation of the existing water line. Water Science and Technology 84(2), 293-301. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2020.575.
    [63]
    Xu, D., Zhang, C., Qu, S., Ma, X., Gao, M., 2012. Characterization of microorganisms in the soils with sewage irrigations. Journal of Microbiology Research 6(44), 7168-7175. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJMR12.675.
    [64]
    Yuan, C., Feng, S., Wang, J., Huo, Z., Ji, Q., 2018. Effects of irrigation water salinity on soil salt content distribution, soil physical properties and water use efficiency of maize for seed production in arid Northwest China. International Journal of Agricultural and Biological Engineering 11(3), 137-145. https://doi.org/10.25165/j.ijabe.20181103.3146.
    • Relative Articles
    • Supplements(0)
    • Cited By
  • 加载中

Catalog

    通讯作者: 陈斌, bchen63@163.com
    • 1. 

      沈阳化工大学材料科学与工程学院 沈阳 110142

    1. 本站搜索
    2. 百度学术搜索
    3. 万方数据库搜索
    4. CNKI搜索

    Figures(1)

    Get Citation
    PDF
    XML

    Article Metrics

    Article views (0) PDF downloads(0) Cited by()
    Proportional views
    Related

    Copyright © 2009 Editorial office of Water Science and Engineering 苏ICP备12023610号-1

    Supported by: Beijing Renhe Information Technology Co. Ltd   support: info@rhhz.net

    /

    DownLoad:  Full-Size Img  PowerPoint
    Return
    Return